The idealist philosophy carried on
into the nineteenth century with the various continental philosophies. Of these existentialism and phenomenology
were the most influential (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 160). Significantly both existentialism and
phenomenology took very different approaches to their idealism, but were both
focused on the individual experience.
Existentialism
Existentialism was an attempt to
take philosophy to an individual level in regards to their interaction with the
world. Fundamentally, existentialism
held that the world is irrational; or in the very least unknowable in a way
that can make sense. The irrationality
of the world ultimately leads to "anxiety, dread, self-doubt, and
despair" (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 160). The important aspect then becomes how the
individual should act within a world that does not make sense. (Moore &
Bruder, 2005, p. 160)
Søren Kierkegaard was one of the
initial pioneers of existentialism, and thus served to solidify the movement. Kierkegaard held that within an illogical
world, and as one faces dilemmas, there are no clear answers; and the lack of
answers ultimately leads to despair.
Kierkegaard ultimately concluded that there is no earthly thing that can
save a man from despair; but a personal commitment God, separate from
intellectual thought, can save a person from this despair. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 161)
Friedrich Nietzsche continued with
the existentialist ideal that there is no reason within the world. He then held that the force that drove most
people ultimately enslaved them to morality; and kept them from the things that
affirm life. He then held that there are
a few "Supermen" that can overcome these enslaving tendencies, and
can affirm life. Fundamentally,
Nietzsche held that there are no facts, only interpretations, and thus
everything remained on an individualistic level. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 161-162)
Jean-Paul Sartre based his
philosophy around the concept of there being no god and the resulting
philosophical ramifications. First,
since there was no common creation, there is no set base on which all humans
are the same. Second, there is no reason
for the way things are; and thus continued the existentialist theme of the
world is illogical and contains no meaning.
Third, the individual is perfectly free, and there are no controlling
(deterministic) forces on their life.
Fourth, there are no set values and thus they must all be man-made. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 171-172)
Existentialism, while still
idealistic, revolts strongly against the ordered idealism of Hegel. Furthermore, since there are no set metrics,
as are possible with Hegel's Absolute, then everything becomes individualistic
and relative. Nietzsche took this more
to its logical end with his nihilism. On
the other hand, existentialism can be seen to be freer, in comparison with
Hegel, because it does not present any preset constructs and values to the
human experience.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology expands upon
existentialism by taking all experience down to the experience level. Importantly there is no consistency between
moment to moment experience and the objects that are perceived, since the
fundamentally change in some fashion from one moment to the next. This then makes all experience more than
individualistic; it is individualistic and changes from moment to moment. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 174)
Edmund Husserl was one of the very
first phenomenologists, and attempted to explore the world based on this
philosophy. This was an attempt to throw
out everything we know and evaluate the things that are the same for every
consciousness. To accomplish this understanding
an individual would have to remove any presuppositions about the
"physical" or "external" world. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p. 174-175)
Martin Heidegger changed the source
of phenomenology from phenomena to being.
His contention was that life has been caught up with ideas, and thus
simply the manipulation of objects.
Heidegger then equated logic with logistics, and is simply the means of
manipulating objects. He also rejected
the humans are the masters of nature, and that it is destructive to view things
that way. (Moore & Bruder, 2005, p.
175)
Phenomenology serves as an extension
of existentialism. The focus remains on
the individual, and more specifically their moment to moment experiences. Both Heidegger and Husserl attempted to find
meaning within this construct, which was a departure from existentialism. Fundamentally, with little coherence from
moment to moment this was the ultimate in individualistic experience.
Conclusion
Hegel presented an idealism that was
rooted in an objective experience on the individual level. The continental philosophy was a rejection of
Hegel's objectivism and universalism, and was an attempt to turn everything
back to the individual. Existentialism
accomplished this rebuttal through the explanation that the world is illogical,
and cannot be understood. Phenomenology
took this a step further by individual experience is unique from moment to
moment, and they is not an objective world of sameness to join the moment to
moment experiences. While Hegel's
Absolute was rejected by the continental philosophies the idealistic nature
served as a basis for continental thought.
The main shift from Hegel was not in the idealism, but in the
interpretation of the idealistic world and thus the implications for humanity
is a subjective environment.
Moore, B. N. & Bruder, K. (2005). Philosophy:
The power of ideas.